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paragone - From the Italian for "comparison", this is a critical term referring to the debate begun in the 16th century and continued in the 17th about the relative merits of painting and sculpture. Also see illusion.
parallel - Two or more straight lines or edges on the same plane that do not intersect. Parallel lines have the same direction.
parallelepiped - A polyhedron with six faces, each a parallelogram, and each parallel to its opposite face. A regular hexahedron is a type of parallelipiped. (pr. payr'e-le'le-py"ped) Also see mathematics, polygon, rhombohedron, and vertex.
parallelogram - A four-sided polygon, all opposite sides being parallel to each other. An equilateral parallelogram is called a rhombus. Also see geometric, mathematics, pantograph, parallelepiped, quadrilateral, rectangle, rhombohedron, square, trapezium, and trapezoid.
parameter - A factor that either restricts what is possible or what results, or determines a range of variations. In mathematics, a parameter may be a constant value in an equation that varies in other equations of the same general type, especially such a constant that describes a curve or surface, such that changing it changes the curve or surface in some way. It may also be a variable that stands for the coordinates of a point. And, in other sciences, a parameter may be one of a set of measurable factors — such as temperature, volume, color, or acidity — that define a system and determine its behavior.
paraph - In a signature, a final squiggle or flourish. Although it may seem to have resulted simply from flamboyance, its original function, during the Middle Ages, was to discourage forgery.
parasol - An umbrella atop a Chinese pagoda; a vestige of the chatra on an Indian stupa.
parchment - An ancestor to contemporary paper, parchment is a material on which to write or paint prepared from the skin of a sheep or goat. It replaced the use of papyrus during the ancient Roman period. Monastic scribes of the Middle Ages practically monopolized its use in Europe preceding the introduction there of papermaking techniques utilizing plant fibers in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Parchment may also refer to paper made in imitation of this material.
parergon - A part of a work of art which is secondary to the main subject or theme of its composition, such as a still life or landscape which is a detail within a portrait. Also used to refer to a work made by anyone working at another sort of job or profession, when made either apart from or as a part of their work, as would be a criminologist's drawing of the scene of a crime.
parget - Ornamental work in plaster. Also see gesso. (pr. pahr'jit)
parody - A work that imitates the characteristic style of another work, either for comic effect or ridicule. Parody is one of the basic tropes.
parquetry - Inlay or veneers of wood forming a geometric design; as related to marquetry, which forms a pictorial image. It is most commonly seen in parquet floors.
parsemage - A method of making an image by scattering dust from charcoal or colored chalk on water and then skimming the design off by passing a stiff paper or cardboard just under the water's surface. Parsemage was invented by surrealist Ithell Colquhoun. Also see aleatory and aleatoric, bricolage, collage, coulage, découpage, femmage, frottage, fumage, marouflage, montage, and photomontage.
passage - Refers to a certain area of a painting or other work of art; a detail. It is often used to direct discussion to a transition from one color or tone to another, or to the use of a noteworthy technique in a section of a picture, or to an area overpainted by someone who was not the original painter.
passage grave - A burial chamber entered through a long, tunnel-like passage.
passe-partout - A mat or other border used to frame or mount a picture. Sometimes an adhesive tape or a gummed paper used to accomplish this. Often adhesives and acidic materials lead to such problems as acidic stains or tearing — damage to artwork requiring art conservation.
pasteup - In graphic design, two-dimensional artwork that is produced so that printed versions can be produced. A pasteup is typically a composition of type elements, illustrations, etc., that is camera-ready when in its final form. Although a physical image or piece of copy is still sometimes produced, and is employed in this process, digital imaging has largely eliminated this step. When a camera is needed, copy is considered camera-ready when it is in its final version, clean, flat, and either dark ink on paper or a pasteup. Also see collage, dry transfer graphics, image capture, montage, and transferal.
pastiche - A work of art made in admitted imitation of several styles of other works. A composition of incongruous parts; a hodgepodge, pasticcio or farrago. Often a pastiche is made in order to ridicule or satirize the style of the artist it imitates. (pr. pass-teesh')
pastiglia - Low relief effects produced by the brushing or controlled dripping of gesso onto a rigid surface. Traditionally, this was either painted or water gilding. Middle Ages, Renaissance, and later painters and craftsmen used this technique on moldings and other decorations, as well as within painted pictures. (pr. pahs-tee'lee-ah)
pastose - Thickly painted. The adjectival form of impasto.
patina - A sheen or coloration on any surface, either unintended and produced by age or intended and produced by simulation or stimulation, which signifies the object's age; also called aerugo, aes ustum, and verdigris. Typically aphoto of a patina in greens and browns thin layer of greens (sometimes reds or blues), usually basic copper sulfate, that forms on copper or copper alloys, such as bronze, as a result of oxidation and corrosion. Metal objects have naturally acquired patinas when long buried in soil or immersed in water. Such naturally formed patinas have come to be greatly prized. There are many formulae for the pickles and chemical treatments of metals which may be employed to encourage the formation of patinas. (pr. pa'te-nah; pah-tee'nah is also used, but many consider it a mispronunciation)
patio - An outdoor space that adjoins a building, usually a residence, and usually it is paved. Typical of Spanish and Latin American architecture, a roofless inner courtyard often surrounded by a covered colonnade leading to interior rooms. Typical of Spanish and Latin American architecture. Also see pergola and peristyle.
patriarchy and patriarchal - The social dominance of the father-- their rule as heads of families, and the preference given to males in descent and inheritance. Feminism sees patriarchy as more pervasive, and as oppressive to women. The opposite of patriarchy is matriarchy. Each is a form of sexism. Also see androcentrism, feminist art, gender issues, political correctness, pornography, sex, world-view, xenophilia, xenophobia, and zeitgeist.
patronage - The physical or emotional support of a patron. Also see collection and New Deal art.
pattern recognition - Awareness of forms or shapes within an image. In digital imaging, this process is computer-based.
paying attention - Concentration of thought upon a subject. A close or careful observing or listening. Focusing one's ability or power to concentrate mentally. Giving observant consideration. When used by a teacher, attention means "Stop, look and listen." Stop working, talking, moving, and put things down. Look toward the teacher or the student who's been called upon. "Listening" is thinking about what's being said, and speaking only when called upon. When a student needs to let a teacher know he or she needs attention, an appropriate means is to raise a hand when the speaker has stopped speaking. Raising a hand does not guarantee that a student will be called upon, although teachers should try to share attention as much as possible. When a teacher has called upon a student, all other students should lower their hands in order to pay attention to the ensuing discussion.
pearlescent - A kind of light that photographers in particular see in the sun's glow at dawn, citing its pearl-like qualities. This has been many photographers' favorite light in which to shoot photographs. Also see crepuscular, day for night, and nocturne.
pectoral - An ornament or a decoration worn on the chest. A breastplate is sometimes called a pectoral. A low necklace may also be called a pectoral.
pedagogy - The art or profession of teaching; the use of means necessary to teaching. (pr. pe"da-gah'jee) Also see teacher.
pedestal - A support or base as for a column or a sculpture. A support or foundation, or to provide one. (pr. pe'de-stel)
pediment - A wide, low-pitched gable surmounting the façade of a building in the ancient Grecian style. It is formed at the end of a building by the sloping roof and the cornice. Or, a triangular element, similar to or derivative of a Grecian pediment, used widely in architecture and decoration.
pelike - In ancient Greek, a storage jar with two handles, a wide mouth, little or no neck, and resting on a foot. Among the other types of Greek vases are the alabastron, amphora, hydria, kantharos, krater, kyathos, kylix, lekythos, oinochoe, pithos, pyxis, and rhyton.
pellicle - A thin skin or film, such as that which forms on oil paint as it dries.
pen - An implement for drawing or writing (lettering, calligraphy), consisting of a handle and a nib from which ink makes marks. Nibs can be in any of a great variety of shapes, sizes, and materials. Nibs have most commonly been made of metal, but have also been made of quill (feather), reed, bamboo, and plastics, among others. Also see India ink or Indian ink, and sepia ink.
pencil - An implement for drawing or writing (lettering), consisting of a thin rod of graphite, colored wax, chalk, charcoal, or another such substance which can be sharpened to a fine point, either encased in wood or held in a mechanical holder. Given the importance of the human brain, eye, and hand, there may be nothing as fundamental for the production of art than the pencil.
pencil sharpener - For utility, common wood-and-graphite pencils must be pointed -- sharpened. The device with which this is accomplished must be among an artist's supplies.
pendentive - A concave, triangular piece of masonry (a triangle section of a hemisphere), four of which provide the transition from a square area to the circular base of a covering dome. Although they appear to be hanging (pendant) from the dome, they in fact support it.
pentagon - A closed two-dimensional shape (polygon) bounded by five straight-line segments. The formula with which to find an equilateral pentagon's area is 1.7205 times the length of one side squared. Also see mathematics and regular.
pentimento - An underlying image in a painting, as an earlier painting, a part of a painting, or original drawing, that shows through, usually when the top layer of paint has been worn or become transparent with age. These images which were supposed to be hidden often appear like ghosts -- not entirely solid. Many result from a painter's decision that a nearly finished picture needs to be altered, but the new passage is made with too thin a layer of paint. Pentimento is Italian for "repentance". The plural form is pentimenti. Also see infrared reflectography (IR), overpainting, underpainting, and palimpsest.
penumbra - A partial shadow between regions of complete shadow and complete illumination. From the word umbra, which means shadow. The penumbra on the cyan sphere you see here is located in two areas: between the brightest and the darkest areas, and also to the lower left of the darkest shadow. This latter area is the least obvious aspect to the shadowing on this sphere, because its presence is counter-intuitive, but when rendered, adds to the illusion of the sphere's three-dimensionality. (pr. pe-num'brah)
People's Republic of China - A period of Chinese history which began with the success of the Communist revolution in 1949. An important phase in this period was the Cultural Revolution, which lasted from 1966-1976. This was a comprehensive reform movement initiated by Mao Zedong in 1965 to eliminate counterrevolutionary elements in China's institutions and leadership. The People's Republic of China's most prominent style has been its official style, socialist realism, although this has lessened since the encouragement of capitalistic enterprises began in the 1980s.
peplos - In ancient Greece, a woollen garment worn by women, also called the Doric chiton, often open down one side and fastened on both shoulders. Also see chlamys, costume, himation, and mantle.
percept - A piece of sensory data received by the brain. In other words, a mental impression of something perceived by the senses. A percept is the basic component in the formation of concepts. Also see déjà vu, knowledge, and memory.
perception - The process of becoming aware through sight, sound, taste, smell, or touch; detection.
Perceptual Abstraction - A name for what is more often called Op Art.
perfect and perfection - Perfect is the quality of being without defect or blemish; accurate, exact; complete, utter; absolute. Or, completely suited for a particular purpose. Perfection is the condition of being perfect.
performance art - Art in which works in any of a variety of media are executed premeditated before a live audience. Although this might appear to be theater, theatrical performances present illusions of events, while performance art presents actual events as art. One of the things setting postmodernism apart from modernism is its acceptance of aspects of theater. Performance elements surfaced in a number of conceptual art movements of the 1960s, including: Fluxus, Happenings, body art, process art, street works, etc. The 1980s saw the emergence of performance artists like David Byrne (American) and Laurie Anderson (American, 1947-), who had each been students of visual art, but whose work gradually incorporated voice, music, costumes, projected image, stage lighting, etc.
pergola - An arbor or a walkway lined with columns supporting a roof of trelliswork upon which vines and other plants are trained to grow.
perimeter - The outer edges of a closed two-dimensional shape, or the length of those edges. The perimeter of a circle is its circumference.
period - An interval of time characterized by the prevalence of a specified culture, ideology, or technology, or regarded as a distinct phase in the development of the work of an artist, or a style or movement. In punctuation, a dot signifying a full stop. Also see isms and -ism and periodicity.
periodicity - The quality of being periodic — of recurrence at regular intervals; organized as a sequence of intervals or period (schools, movement, styles, etc.), as studies of art history commonly are. It is being discussed when one hears about stylistic pendulum swinging. Although such structure allows for the making of generalizations which are needed in developing a framework for the understanding of great spans of cultural history, awareness of variations tends to be lost. Unless the exceptions are studied, a less robust understanding of history results. This is one argument against the canon, and in support of multiculturalism. Also see animation, archaeology, chronology, concatenation, horology, interdisciplinary, moiré, music, rhythm, science and art, time, and tradition.
peripheral vision - Perception near the outer edges of the retina.
periphrastic - Using many words when few would do; verbose; round-about; circumlocutory. An attribute ascribed to some of the worst art writing. Also see art criticism and art history.
peripteral - In architecture, a style of building in which the main structure is surrounded by a colonnade. (pr. per-ip'teh-ruhl) Also see arcade, balcony, gallery, and peristyle.
peristyle - A court enclosed on all sides by a colonnade, such as occurs in ancient Greek and Roman temples and medieval cloisters. Or, a series of columns surrounding a building or enclosing a court. Also see arcade and peripteral.
permanence, permanent - Permanence is the quality of lasting into the far distant future. Something is permanent when it is fully expected to last many generations. There is a certain hubris in claiming anything about the future. Things can last as briefly as a moment before they are gone. Others last a few days, weeks, months or years — to varying degrees, these are all temporary, fragile in some way or other. Music, dance, and theater were once considered utterly transitory. With recording equipment, we have ever more commonly excellent documentation of such performance works. Many things that might have been permanent have been damaged, destroyed, or otherwise lost due to either natural or human causes. The natural category includes fires, floods, earthquakes, and other storms, insects, light, mold, and other problematic substances. Manmade disasters include wars, vandalism, accidents, pollution, neglect, and even the daily gentle touches of too numerous admirers. Permanence is an important issue to many in the art world. We are concerned that art media be permanent so that works can last if taken care of reasonably well; so we seek out permanent pigments, acid-free papers, and other sturdy materials, some that contain or seal surfaces from atmospheric and other forces. Museums speak of works in their collections being in their "permanent collections." Buyers of very expensive works think at least partly of their collections as investments or as gifts to posterity.
permanent collection - Those objects that are owned by a museum. Also see accession, catalogue, collection, deaccession, and donation.
permanent pigment and color permanence - Any pigment which can be expected to last or remain without essential change — little likely to deteriorate under certain atmospheric conditions, in normal light or in proximity to other colors. Color permanence refers to a pigment's lasting power. Tubes and other containers of paint are sometimes labeled with a code indicating a color's degree of permanence:
perpendicular - Intersecting at or forming right angles. Because humans tend to describe angles as they relate to the horizontal plane, perpendicular often means vertical.
persistence of vision - Retention in the brain for a fraction of a second of whatever the eye has seen; causes a rapid succession of images to merge one into the next, producing the illusion of continuous change and motion in media such as cinema, video, and computer animations.
personification - Representation of something inanimate or abstract as having personality or the qualities, thoughts, or movements of a living human being. For example, Liberty is portrayed as a woman raising a torch. This is also called prosopopeia. Also see allegory, anthropomorphism, content, sign, signature, and symbol.
perspective - The technique artists use to project an illusion of the three-dimensional world onto a two-dimensional surface. Perspective helps to create a sense of depth — of receding space. Fundamental techniques used to achieve perspective are: controlling variation between sizes of depicted subjects, overlapping some of them, and placing those that are on the depicted ground as lower when nearer and higher when deeper. In addition, there are three major types of perspective: aerial perspective, herringbone perspective, and linear perspective.
perspicacious and perspicacity - Having or showing penetrating thinking skills; clear-sighted. Such an acuteness of perception is perspicacity. (pron. pr'spi-kay"shes, pr'spi-kas"e-tee) Not to be confused with perspicuous. One easy way to keep out of trouble is to think of "perspicUous" as the "U" word, and remember that it means "Understandable" — in contrast to the "A" word, "perspicAcious," that means "Astute." Both words come directly from Latin adjectives that mean the same thing they do: "perspicuous" from "perspicuus," and "perspicacious" from "perspicax."
perspicuous and perspicuity - Clearly expressed; lucid; easy to understand, especially because of clarity and precision of presentation. The quality of being perspicuous is perspicuity. (pron. pr'spik"yoo-es, pr'spe-kyoo"e-tee) Not to be confused with perspicacious. One easy way to keep out of trouble is to think of "perspicUous" as the "U" word, and remember that it means "Understandable" — in contrast to the "A" word, "perspicAcious," that means "Astute." Both words come directly from Latin adjectives that mean the same thing they do: "perspicuous" is based on Latin "perspicere," meaning "to see through," so that which is perspicuous is clear and understandable. "perspicacious" from "perspicax."
pestle - A tool used to crush or grind substances in a mortar. Before many artists' materials were manufactured and made commercially available, artists and their assistants produced paints and other media from raw materials, grinding many of them to prepare colorants, binders, glazes, investments, etc.
petroglyph - An image engraved or drawn on rock, especially one made by prehistoric people.
pewter - Any of various alloys with tin as the main component; bright modern pewter contains 6-7% antimony and 1-2% copper; the dull metal of the past contained up to 25% copper, antimony, or lead. POISONOUS!Sometimes sculptures described as made of lead have actually been made of such an alloy as this. Caution: contact with lead can contaminate food with poison.
phenomenology - The branch of philosophy that studies all possible appearances in human experience (phenomena), during which considerations of objective reality and of purely subjective response are left out of account. Also see empiricism, epistemology, interdisciplinary, metaphysics, ontology, science and art, and teleology.
phenomenon - An occurrence, a circumstance, or a fact that is perceptible by the senses. The plural form is phenomena. Also see light, moiré, and sight.
phiale - In ancient Greece, and other ancient Mediterranean cultures, a bowl or wide cup without a handle, traditionally used for libations: ritual offerings of wine or olive oil to the gods — ceremonies in which the liquid would be spilled over an altar or a burial site to satisfy the souls of the deceased. At their center, a phiale is likely to have an omphalos, the mythic navel of the universe. Phiales are typically metal, although they were sometimes produced in clay or glass. (pr. fi:'eh-lee)
philluminist - One who collects matchbooks or matchbox tops.
philtrum - In the anatomy of the human face, the area below the septum of the nose down to the upper lip. The philtrum is comprised of a pair of vertical ridges (also called the philtral columns) separated by a vertical groove (also called the philtral dimple). Also see ala and alar groove, bust, portrait, and self-portrait.
phosphene - A sensation of light caused by excitation of the retina by mechanical or electric means rather than by light, as when the eyeballs are rubbed through closed lids.
photoCD - A storage method for digital images. In the basic Kodak PhotoCD configuration, five different levels of image quality are stored for each image in an Imagepac (a file-storage format.)
photocopy - To make a photographic reproduction of printed or graphicmaterial, especially by xerography. This is the most common contemporary method of making inexpensive photo images on paper. Photocopy machines are commonly sited in schools, libraries, businesses, etc. Also, a piece of such photographic or xerographic reproduction. Other photographic means of reproduction include blueprinting, facsimile, microfilming, and photostats. see thumbnail to rightWe are S H O C K E D : a Teddy Bear caught in the act of mooning a photocopier.
photogram - A photographic print made by placing an arrangement of objects on photosensitive paper exposed to light to yield an image of ghostly silhouettes floating in a void of darkened space. The first photogram was probably made around 1802.
photographic - Having to do with photography. Often referring to an image's resemblence to a photograph — similar to the way it's subject would appear in a photograph, with great accuracy and fidelity of detail.
photogravure - A photomechanical printmaking process invented in 1879. A photographic image is transfered to a copper plate which is chemically etched. The plate is hand-inked for each print.
photomechanical graphic - Photographic (and analog) processes used in preparing to print images with the printing plates. Color separation is one of the functions of photomechanical processes — making a separate printing plate for each of the color components in a color picture. Usually there are four: one plate for yellow, one for blue (cyan), one for red (magenta), and one for black. Images printed by offset lithography — the printing process by which the majority of periodicals are printed for example — have invariably been photomechanical graphics until computer graphic processes have gotten to take over some of this territory. A computer generated image is more likely to be called a computer graphic or digital graphic. Also see moiré.
photomontage - A montage of photographs. (pr. foh'toh-mahn-tahzh")
photon - A subatomic particle having zero mass, no electric charge, and an indefinitely long lifetime. Photon is also the name of a unit of retinal illumination, equal to the amount of light that reaches the retina through one square millimeter of pupil area from a surface having a brightness of one candela per square meter.
photoreceptors - Anatomically essential to seeing, photoreceptors are the nerve endings (brain cells called neurons) sensitive to light, that line the retina, located on the surface of the inner eyeball opposite the eye's lens. Here millions of photoreceptors are differentiated into the neurons called rods and cones, which are connected by the optic nerve to the brain. see thumbnail to leftIn this illustration, the rods and cones are the pink forms shown embedded in the anterior of the retina's surface. The more uniformly thin rods, among the more thickly formed cones. Also see afterimage, binocular vision, colorblind, cross-section, gestalt, night blindness or nyctalopia, Op Art, ophthalmology, optical, optical mixing, perception, and peripheral vision.
Photo-Secession or Photo Secession - An American photography movement from 1905-1917. It was led by Alfred Stieglitz, whose Little Galleries of the Photo-Secession later became Gallery 291 (from its address at 291 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY). Steiglitz edited the journal Camera Work during these years, publishing it from the 291 Gallery.
Photoshop - A sophisticated software program, produced by Adobe Systems, for altering and processing digital photographs and other digital images. Also see GraphicConverter.
photoscreen - A technique employing photographic processes to create stencil screens from graphic images, which then become part of complex printing or painting processes. Also see silkscreen.
pi - The sixteenth letter of the Greek alphabet, which in mathematics stands for a transcendental number, approximately 3.14, which expresses the ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle and appears as a constant in many mathematical expressions. If you need it carried a few places further to the right [quite unlikely actually, but just in case, here are 52]:
piano nobile - In Renaissance architecture, the principal story, usually the second (the floor just above [what in America is known as] the first or ground floor).
pica - In typography, a unit of measurement in which there are 12 points to a pica and 6 picas to an inch.
pick - A tool consisting of a curved iron bar with a point at one end and a chisel edge at the other, fitted to a long handle, and used to quarry, mine and break stones, and also to shape them in the most basic way.
pickle - An acid solution in which to soak metals either to POISONOUS!clean them or to achieve an artificial patina. Many metals, including bronze and silver, when newly cast are covered with oxides which are easily removed by pickling.
PICT - Macintosh Picture. A storage format for digital images designed primarily for Macintosh computers. Other digital image file formats include GIF (Graphic Image File), JFIF, JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group), AI (Adobe PhotoShop), APS (Adobe PhotoShop), PICT (Macintosh Picture), and TIFF. Also see Adobe, GraphicConverter, and Photoshop.
pictograph - Also called a pictogram, figurative drawing or picture representing a word, sound or idea. Earliest form in the evolution of a system of writing. An example is the ancient Egyptian writing called hieroglyphs. This method of communication is still used today by certain civilisations including Chinese, Japanese, and American Indians. It may also refer to a pictorial representation of numerical data or relationships, especially a graph, but having each value represented by a proportional number of pictures.
picture - A visual representation or image drawn, painted, photographed, or otherwise produced on a flat surface. Considered as a synonym for painting, some Americans mistakenly think it uncultivated, however the term is much more commonly used by the British.
picture plane - In perspective, the plane (a flat level) occupied by the surface of the picture — its frontal boundary. When there is any illusion of depth in the picture, the picture plane is similar to a plate of glass behind which pictorial elements are arranged in depth. Artists indicate the supposed distance of subjects beyond the picture plane through the use of changes in the sizes of things, the ways they overlap each other, and (when subjects are placed on the depicted ground, as opposed to flying above it) by positioning them on the area taken up by the depicted floor, ground, or a body of water. Abstract Expressionists worked directly on the plane itself, unconcerned with recession in depth.
picturesque - In general, this may refer to any scene which seems to be especially suitable for representation in a picture, especially that which is sublime. It is especially associated with an aesthetic mode formulated in the late eighteenth century which valued deliberate rusticity, irregularities of design, and even a cultivated pursuit of quaint or nostalgic forms. Such pictures became common in nineteenth century Europe and America. Examples can be found among the American painters of the Hudson River school — Thomas Cole (1801-1848), Jasper Cropsey (1823-1900), and Asher B. Durand (1796-1886) — and of the Rocky Mountain school — Albert Bierstadt (1830-1902) and Thomas Moran (1837-1926).
piebald - Patchy or spotted, especially in black and white, or, less frequently, other colors. Piebald is often used in describing horses, dogs, and other animals.
piece - To join parts to form a whole. When the whole is a sculpture, the parts are often projecting extremities or accessories, especially in marble sculpture. "Piece" sometimes refers to an artifact, an artwork, or an object, or to a part of one. Also see masterpiece.
piece mold - A mold made in interlocking sections which can be used in making several casts since the mold is easily removed each time without being damaged. Piece molds are most often made of plaster, but might also be made of clay.
pied de biche - A claw chisel with two long points. This is the French name (literally "deer's foot") for what in Italy is called a calcagnolo. (pr. pee-ay' deh beesh) Also see bush hammer.
pier - A sculptural and an architectural term with several possible meanings. It is most commonly a platform extending from a shore over water and supported by piles or pillars, used either as a mooring for ships or boats, or for entertainments of other sorts. And finally, it may be any of several sorts of vertical supporting structures: such as a massive vertical pillar (rectangular, round, or compound in cross-section), a buttress; a section of wall that is used to support an arch, vault, or other kind of roof, or, a supporting structure at the junction of connecting spans of a bridge.Related link:
pigment - Finely powdered color material which produces the color of any medium. Made either from natural substances or synthetically, pigment becomes paint, ink, or dye when mixed with oil, water or another fluid (also called vehicle). When pressed into wax it becomes a crayon, pencil or chalk.
pigment printing - A photographic printing method, in which a halftone picture results from pigments embedded in gelatin. The primary material is a paper called "pigment paper", a paper coated with a mixture of gelatin and pigment. The paper is made light-resistant through a bath in chromcarbonate solution, then it is dried and photoprocessed with a halftone negative. Visit Manfred Rupp's site for Hans Ulrich's more thorough description of this process. He claims that pigment printing is the best photoprocess for color, tone and lightfastness known to date; indeed that it is the only color photopositive process that has its longevity, in contrast to the standard processes which hold their colorfastness and light-resistance no more than twenty years.
pilaster - pilasterIn architecture, a flat, rectangular column (often fluted) with a capital and base, attached to or set into a wall as an ornamental motif. It may be decorative or used to buttress the wall. (pr. pil-las'ter) Also see pier and respond.
pilotis - In architecture, thin steel or reinforced concrete posts used by architects in the early twentieth century to support concrete roof and floor slabs, avoiding the need for bearing walls. (pr. pee-loh'teez) The singular form is piloti. Also see column and pier.
pillar - Usually a weight carrying member, such as a column or a pier. Sometimes it is an isolated, freestanding structure used for commemorative purposes.
pinax - A plate or plaque. Among the other types of Greek vases are the alabastron, amphora, hydria, kantharos, krater, kyathos, kylix, lekythos, oinochoe, pelike, phiale, pithos, pyxis, and rhyton.
pinch, pinch-pot - Pinching is a pottery technique, fundamental to manipulating clay. Making a pinch-pot is pressing the thumb into a ball of clay, and drawing the clay out into a pot by repeatedly squeezing the clay between the thumb and fingers. Among their first adventures with clay, K-2 students should have ample opportunities to make pinch-pots, the initial goals of which are: thin walls (from center of bottom to the lip), a smooth inner surface, and identity marked on the underside.
pinhole camera - In photography, an extremely simple camera — a box having no lens other than an extremely small aperture. It's a great, inexpensive, hands-on means to learning the basics of how a camera works.
pinnacle - In architecture, a tower, primarily ornamental, that also functions in Gothic architecture to give additional weight to a buttress or a pier.
pinnate - Feather-shaped.
pint - A unit of liquid measurement (in the US) equal to 16 ounce (fluid), or half a quart. To convert pints into liters, multiply them by 0.4731176; into tablespoons, x 32. Abbreviated pt.
pique assiette or picassiette - Pique assiette (sometimes picassiette) is a style of mosaic or tiling which incorporates ceramic shards — found pieces of broken plates, dishes, cups, etc. — into a design.
pitch - Any of a variety of thick, dark, resinous substances obtained from the distillation residue of coal tar, wood tar, or petroleum. One type is burgundy pitch. Pitch is used as the material of a model on which to hammer (raising) sheet metal. It is commonly used for waterproofing, roofing, caulking, and paving.
pitcher or pitching hammer or pitching tool - A broad, heavy stone carving chisel, used to strike off pieces of stone in roughing out a carving. Pitcher might also refer to a ewer. [Not to be confused with picture !]
pithos - A large, ceramic storage vessel frequently set upon the earth and therefore possessing no flat base. It usually has a lid, and was often used for storing a large quantity of grain or oil, or for a human burial. The plural form of this Greek term is pithoi. (pr. pith'aws) Among the other types of Greek vases are the alabastron, amphora, hydria, kantharos, krater, kyathos, kylix, lekythos, oinochoe, pelike, phiale, pinax, pyxis, and rhyton.
pixel - Short for "picture element," a dot of color on a video or computer screen, similar to the grains in a photograph, or dots in half-tone rat. On a computer monitor, each pixel can represent a number of different shades or colors, depending upon how much storage space is allocated for it. Also see 8-bit image, 24-bit image, gestalt, moiré, and pixel shim.
pixel shim - A very small (as small as one pixel wide and one pixel high) transparent GIF that a Web page designers use to adjust placement of text and images. Betweenthewordsofthissentencearepixelshims,eachonepixelhigh,andprogressivelyfromonepixelwideto23pixelswide.
placeholder or place-holder - A word or an image that is used instead of the actual name or image of a person or thing that probably has a more specific name or image. The person or thing may simply not have been named yet or its name has been forgotten, or there is some other reason to provide a substitute, as there is for a euphemism. Placeholder words include: artifact, deelybob, deelybobber, device, doodad, doohicky, framisater-frezahmerator, gadget, gizmo, hoozywhat, item, object, stuff, thingamabob, thingamajig, thingy, whatchamacallit, whatchamajigger, what's-it, and widget. Such words are also known in Britain as cadigans, and by William Safire (contemporary American writer) as tongue-tippers. In the visual arts, such words are often used for materials, tools, or parts that one doesn't presently have a remembered or more specific word for. Works of art for which we do not have titles are often called Untitled. In graphic design, placeholding "lorem ipsum . . . ", sometimes called greeking, because of the antique appearance of the text traditionally used. A placeholding image is sometimes displayed to show where an image will or would normally appear.
plagiarism - The taking of ideas, writings or other creative work of someone else, passing them off as one's own. (pr. play"je-rizm') Also see appropriation, authentic, copy, copyright, counterfeit, droit moral, fake, forgery, likeness, original, reproduction, simulacrum, and trompe l'oeil.
plan - The horizontal arrangement of things in an area, or a drawing, diagram, or map, shown as if seen from above, and made to scale. In architecture, such a drawing or diagram of the parts of a building — either it's a floor plan, a roof plan, or it's a horizontal cross-section of a building at some other level. A site plan represents an environment within which architectural or artistic designs may be located.
plane - Any flat level or surface. An example of a work in which planes are an important element:
planish - To smooth metal by hammering with overlapping blows. Planishing produces small indentations on the metal's surface. This is often done to silver when either raising, sinking or embossing it. (pr. plan'ish)
planography - A process for printing from a smooth surface. Lithography and offset are both planographic printing processes.
plaster trap - A receptacle fitted under a sink to provide a filter in the draining system. Waste plaster is strained off when tools, etc., are being cleaned. Using plaster without such a trap risks expensive repairs to drainage pipes. Also see clean up.
plastic - That which is modeled, or which can be modeled; also said to have plasticity or plastic quality. (Distinguished from glyptic.) Or, having the qualities of sculpture; being well formed. Also, any of various organic compounds produced by polymerization (many are petroleum byproducts), capable of being molded, extruded, or cast into various shape. It can be made highly transparent, translucent, or opaque. Also see acrylics, basket, cel, cellocut, cellophane, fiberglass, glass, inflatable, Lucite, memory, nylon, packaging, plastic art and plastic arts, Plasticine, Plexiglas, polyester resins, polyethylene, polymer, polymer clay, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyurethane, polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinyl chloride, resin, vitrine, and wood.
plastic art and plastic arts - First of all, such uses of "plastic" very rarely refer to art made with petroleum byproducts, but instead to the original meaning of "plasticity or plastic quality" — sculptural, modeled, or malleable. The singular form, "plastic art" generally refers to three-dimensional art, such as sculpture, as distinguished from drawing and painting; also, two-dimensional art which strives for an illusion of depth. The plural form, "plastic arts" generally refers to one or more of the visual arts, which include sculpture, architecture, painting, drawing, and the graphic arts; as distinguished from music, poetry, literature, dance, and theater. The terms "plastic art" and "plastic arts" are used much more by British than by American writers. ArtLex suspects these terms so often confuse readers that it recommends the use of alternatives. Among those, consider visual culture, as well as the older terms art, the arts, artifact, beaux-arts, fine art, applied arts, commercial art, and graphic arts.
Plasticine® - A brand name ("a trademark owned by the Bluebird Toys group of companies") for a modeling clay (oil-based as opposed to ceramic water-based clays) is available in many colors. It cannot be fired or glazed. It softens as it is modeled by the hands (because of their warmth), pieces being joined to each other by pressing them together and blending with fingertips. (pr. pla"stuh-seen') Also see polymer clay.
plasticity or plastic quality - The three-dimensional quality of sculptured or constructed forms. Plasticity can also refer to the quality of a material which can be easily manipulated — modeled, molded or pressed into a desired shape; malleable and yet holding its shape. Clay is an example of a material which can be extremely plastic. Alexander Calder (American, 1898-1976) enjoyed the plasticity of wire; Claes Oldenburg (Swedish-American, 1929) has enjoyed using vinyl, plaster and several other materials for their plasticity. Also see plastic, plastic art and plastic arts, and Plasticine.
plate - A smooth, flat, relatively thin, rigid object of uniform thickness. May refer to any of the following: a sheet of metal, electroplate, a sheet of any material prepared to be inked in order to make prints, a print (especially when produced for a book), a light-sensitive sheet of glass or metal used in a photographic process, or a very shallow vessel. Also see iconograph.
platinum - A heavy, precious, noncoroding, ductile, malleable metal, usually grayish-white, used mainly in jewelry in the form of alloy.
pleat - A fold in cloth made by doubling the fabric upon itself and then pressing or stitching it into place. Also see costume, declivity, kerf, mark, rugosity, and textile.
en plein air - French for "in the open air," used chiefly to describe paintings that have been executed outdoors, rather than in the studio. Plein air painting was taken up by the English painters Richard Parks Bonington (1802-1828) and John Constable (1776-1837), and the French Barbizon School, and it became central to Impressionism. Its popularity was aided by the development of easily portable painting equipment and materials, including paints sold in tubes. The equivalent term in Italian is "alfresco," which is also used by English-speakers. (pr. pleh-nayr')
PlexiGlas® - A trademark for an acrylic plastic available in sheet or rod form. PlexiGlas can be transparent or translucent, and is available in many colors. Also see cellocut, fiberglass, Lucite®, polyester resins, and resin.
plinth - A block of wood or stone sometimes placed beneath a sculpture or a column; a narrow, vertical, rectangular stone base. Also see niche, pedestal, and socle.
plop art - Any work which is neither site-specific nor appealing to the viewer. Invariably a term of derision, this term was coined by Americans in the public art community.
plug - An insertion, generally cylindrical in shape. When applied to metal sculpture, it refers to an insert of the same or similar material as the sculpture. Such an insert is best threaded, screwed into a drilled hole (for example where there has been a flaw), and then sawn off and filed down. Also see dowel and riveting.
pluralism - The doctrine that numerous distinct ethnic, religious, and cultural groups should and do coexist, and that no single group is superior to others. This is very similar to multiculturalism. The opposite is particularism. Pluralism is also used to refer to art in the 1970s and 1980s, when the great variety of attitudes and style was taken as a sign of cultural vigor. It has been seen as one of the hallmarks of postmodernism, encouraging divergent perceptions of the world, and arguing against the setting of any single standard. Also see feminism and feminist art, gender issues, political correctness, xenophilia, xenophobia, and zeitgeist.
pneumosparklyosis - A fictitious ailment also known as glitter lung.
pochade - A small color sketch, usually in oil paint. A pochade is often a rough little landscape, typically produced away from the studio, with the intention of referring to it later in the studio in order to paint a larger, more developed version. A pochade box is a sketch box, a very portable container for carrying oil-painting supplies on field trips. This is a French word used by English speakers. (pr. poh-shahd') Also see alla prima, plein air, and underpainting.
pochoir - A print made from stencils. It was often used for the reproduction of original color works. It was used in France by the most prominent artists and craftsmen to produce illustrated deluxe portfolios, books, limited-edition journals, and decorative and fine-art prints between 1895 and 1935.
point - While it usually refers to a specific location, to a sculptor, a point is a simple metal tool with a pointed end used to rough out (dress) the basic shape of a stone carving. Hammered vertically and with force at the stone face, it not only punctures the stone's surface but causes a rough circle of stone to burst off around this puncture. Handled softly it can gradually reduce the surface, giving it an overall crumbly or pulverized appearance. A fine punch can also be driven into the stone as a defining hole. In addition, the point can be used obliquely to score the stone in long jagged lines. In typography, it is the smallest unit of measurement: although actually .01384 inch, for practical purposes, it is 1/12 of an inch, and twelve points equal one pica. Also see aculeate, angle, blot, calcagnolo, claw chisel, concentric, dot, period, pied de biche, pointing machine, tangent, and vertex.
pointillism - A method of painting developed in France in the 1880s in which tiny dots of color are applied to the canvas. When viewed from a distance, the points of color appear to blend together to make other colors and to form shapes and outlines. Georges Seurat (French, 1859-1891) was its leading exponent. His most famous painting is see thumbnail to rightA Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte (Un dimanche après-midi à l'Ile de la Grande Jatte), 1884-1886, oil on canvas, 81 x 120 inches, Art Institute of Chicago. Occasionally used synonyms for pointillism have been "divisionism" and "confetti-ism." See other examples at Neo-Impressionism. Also see brindled, optical mixing, pattern, piebald, Segantini stitch, stipple, and variegated.
pointing and pointing machine - A mechanical means of indirect carving —reproducing or scaling up a three-dimensional form in correct proportion. A pointing machine is a framework of metal arms which can be fitted around a sculpture to measure the relationship between given points on its surface. A pointing machine permits these measurements to be transferred from a model to another mass of material — usually a block — the block then cut into either by hand or by machine. Pointing machines are especially necessary for the carving of sculptures having complex form which is based on a plastic model. Greek and Roman sculptors are known to have used them. They were re-invented during the Italian Renaissance. Further improvements made during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries included pantographic devices which allowed small models to be scaled up. The pantograph is a similar device for copying two-dimensional figures.
point of view - A position or angle from which something is observed or considered, and the direction of the viewer's gaze; a standpoint which is either a physical location or one in the mind. Examples of the points of view possible in a picture are: from below, from inside, from outside, from above, and so on. A manner of viewing things; an attitude. The attitude or outlook of a narrator or character in a piece of literature, a movie, or another art form. In discussing art, to use the common synonym "perspective" may be confusing.
poison - Any substance capable of causing injury or death. When someone has been exposed to toxic substances, immediately contact a poison control center network or get medical assistance — telephone 911 in many communities.MEDICAL ALERT!
polarizing - In photography, using a "polarizing" filter to limit the normal pattern of lightwaves. Also see direction, light, moiré, and straight.
polish - To impart a very smooth finish to a surface, or such a finish itself. Also, the material which can be used to produce such a finish, either by rubbing with a mild abrasive or by the action of chemicals. Examples of such materials include: tripoli, rottenstone, pumice, and rouge. (pr. pah'lish)
political correctness, politically correct, and PC - Developed in the mass media, these terms came into use in the 1980s to describe those who seek a social transformation in various ways: challenging the canon to which the traditional curriculum had adhered (demanding the inclusion of studies of non-mainstream cultures), traditional notions of identity (race, gender, class, and sexuality), as well as sensitivity to unconscious racism and sexism and to environmental concerns. The momentum of this movement came largely from the political left, and from intense debates taking place on college and university campuses. Although there is no defensible ground on which to disagree with its spirit, this movement has been derided as a form of thought-police — for its demands of adherence to a party line. See ethnocentrism, feminism and feminist art, gender issues, multiculturalism, pluralism, xenophilia, and xenophobia.
polychrome - Having many colors; multicolored. This term is usually used to describe sculptural or decorative objects finished or decorated with paint or glazes.
polyester resins - Synthetic plastic resin in liquid form are made to solidify by the addition of a catalyst. Resin, reinforced with glass fiber, is commonly used as casting material, but may also be modeled when thickened with an inert filler such as powdered chalk. It can be cut and abraded when hard.
polyethylene - A chemically inert, highly flexible, transparent or translucent plastic. Used in art conservation to make sleeves for photographic materials, among other uses. Also see polypropylene.
polygon - A closed plane figure (shape) bounded by three or more straight-line segments. A list of names of polygons, and the formulae for finding their areas when their sides are equilateral :
polyhedron - A three-dimensional figure bounded by polygons. Each of its sides is called a face. Each of the straight lines which describe the meeting of faces is called an edge, and each point at the end of an edge is called a vertex. The plural form can be either polyhedrons or polyhedra.
polymer - A chemical compound made by grouping molecules to form natural or synthetic resins. Acrylic resins are polymers in a thermoplastic or thermosetting form of either acrylic acid, methacrylic acid, esters of these acids, or acrylonitrile, and are used to produce paints, and such lightweight plastics and synthetic rubbers as nylon. Polymer clay, polyurethane, and other materials are made of polymers.
polymer clay - A modeling material consisting of finely ground particles of colored polymer, often polyvinyl chloride (PVC), held together by a binder to form a malleable clay-like medium. Trademarked brand names include FIMO and Sculpey. In oven-fired polymer clays, finished articles are heated in a domestic oven to fire or fuse or sinter the polymer molecules into a hard, durable object — often jewelry, beads, or small sculptures. Because polymer clays are made of self-colored molecules, making them bleed-proof: different colors do not bleed into each other when placed against each other.
polyptych - An altarpiece made up of more than three sections. (pr. pohl'ip-tik)
polyropylene - A plastic material highly suitable for the acid-free archival storage of works on paper and other small two-dimensional object.
polysemy - Many meanings. From the Greek for "many signs." (pr. pe-lis'se-mee) Also see ambiguity.
polystyrene - A plastic which is available in several forms: Toughened polystyrene is a rigid plastic in sheet or board form. Foam core or foam board is a strong, stiff, resilient, and lightweight board of polystyrene laminated with paper on both of its sides. Expanded polystyrene is a lightweight, granular mass, usually worked in sheets or blocks, but also available in loose granules. (pr. pah'lee-sti:"reen)
polyurethane - Any of various thermoplastic polymers that contain urethane. Polyurethanes can vary widely in their flexibility and rigidity — eraser-soft to bowling-ball-hard. They are typically used in resins, chemical-resistant coatings, elastomers, adhesives, fibers, and foams for padding and insulation. Polyurethanes can be obtained in cast sheets, bars, rods, and tubes, as well as in liquid forms in both water and oil-based formulas.
polyvinyl acetate - A synthetic resin used as a medium or a varnish.
polyvinyl alcohol - Abbreviated PVA, polyvinyl alcohol is a thick white liquid which dries to a tough clear plastic skin. It is an adhesive and may also be used diluted with water as a release agent or sealant. Also see seal.
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) - Polyvinyl chloride, abbreviated PVC, is a flexible sheet plastic which can be sewn, glued, or welded. Shapes made from PVC may be stuffed, inflated or filled with water. Inexpensive plastic pipes, and their related fittings, commonly used by plumbers, are usually made of PVC. PVC materials are not safe for long term archival storage.
pontil - A hollow iron rod used to gather molten glass for blowing; also called a punty.
popular culture - Low (as opposed to high) culture, parts of which are known as kitsch and camp. With the increasing economic power of the middle- and lower-income populace since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the nineteenth century, artists created various new diversions to answer the needs of these groups. These have included pulp novels and comic books, film, television, advertising, "collectibles," and tract housing. These have taken the place among the bourgeois once taken among the aristocracy by literature, opera, theater, academic painting, sculpture, and architecture. But modernist artists rarely cultivated the popular success of these new cultural forms. Modernist works were little appreciated outside of a small elite. Life magazine's 1950s articles on the abstract expressionist Jackson Pollock (American, 1912-1956), and the silkscreened paintings by Andy Warhol (American, 1928?-1987) of soup cans and celebrities signaled unprecedented fusions between high and low art and the transition to the postmodern age.
pornography - Pictures, textures, or other material that is sexually explicit, typically equating sex with power and violence. The human bodies depicted in pornographic imagery are typically flawless and vulnerable, commodified rather than celebrated. Significant issues in the consideration of nudes in any context include: their gender, the gender of those who produced them, the gender of those who paid for their production, and the motivations of each of these people, as well as how these depictions are viewed in cultures other than those for which they were originally produced. Also, the presentation or production of pornographic material. Also see erotica and erotic art, feminism and feminist art, First Amendment rights, fig leaf, beauty, love, obscene, vandalism, and voyeurism.
porphyry - A hard igneous rock, originally recognized as the Egyptian variety now known as "Imperial" porphyry containing crystals of feldspar in a purplish groundmass. It was prized in the sculpture and architecture of the ancient Romans as well as by later civilizations. Also considered porphyry are rocks of other colors including a green variety from Greece which dotted with green bits of feldspar.
portal - In architecture, a door or gate, usually of importance or large in size. In most Gothic cathedrals there were three portals in the main façade.
portfolio - A portable case for holding material, such as loose drawings, photographs, or other images. It may also be the materials collected in such a case, especially when they are representative of an artist's work. By extension, a portfolio might be a portable collection of originals or reproductions of an artist's work in a format other than the traditional case — as a set of digital images online or on a disc for example.
portico - In architecture, a porch or walkway with a roof — either open or partly enclosed — supported by columns and often with a pediment, usually leading to the entrance of a building. It has been a standard feature of classical and neoclassical styles. Porticos can be one or more stories high, and may be as narrow as a door or as wide as an entire building. Porticos an galleries are often confused, and some can be described as being both. The plural form can be either porticoes or porticos. Each can have a colonnade, and each can be a long porch.
positive - Displaying certainty or affirmation; a synonym for "yes," and as in judgment, positive can signify approval. It can also mean irrefutable. Or, a quantity, number, angle, direction, or space that is opposite to another designated as negative. In photography, an image having values and colors of light and dark areas of the image as in their original and normal relationship, as seen in nature, light areas appearing light and shadows appearing dark, as typically seen in a print — an image produced in a photographic emulsion, typically on a sheet paper by exposure to light that passed through a negative, and to development in photosensitive chemicals. In cinema, a motion-picture print. In printmaking, a printing plate with light and dark areas in their natural relation to those seen by the eye.
positive space - Space in an artwork that is positive — filled with something, such as lines, designs, color, or shapes. The opposite of negative space.
post and lintel - In architecture, the simplest and oldest way of constructing an opening. Two vertical structural members called posts were used to support a horizontal member called a lintel or beam, creating a covered space.
posterity - Future generations; or all of a person's decendants. What motivates an artist (or a collector or an educator) and to work really hard and well at it is most likely to be: pleasing oneself and the contemporaries about whom one most cares. Right alongside this in importance: leaving behind a legacy for posterity.
posthumous, posthumously - Happening or continuing after one's death. When applied to a work of art, posthumous might indicate works that are printed or cast after an artist's death, as with a posthumous edition. It might refer to works completed by others that were left unfinished at the artist's death, or to changes in thinking (art criticism or art historical re-assessments, praising or otherwise, changes in the market value, etc.) about an artist's work after the artist's death. It might also refer to a representation of a person produced by an artist after that person's death. This word is derived from the Latin word postumus, literally meaning "after the burial." The adverbial form is "posthumously." (pr. pahs'ch-mss or pahst'hyoo-mss)
Post-Minimalism - (See Minimalism.) Although minimalist art of the 1960s had a stripped-down, prefabricated look, striving to be free of content (free of allegorical qualities), art with minimalist tendencies from the 1970s onward typically became more content-laden. The term Post-Minimalism was coined by Robert Pincus-Witten in Artforum, November, 1971, "Eva Hesse: Post-Minimalism into Sublime." Pincus-Witten pointed out the more embellished and pictorial approach Richard Serra took in his cast-lead pieces, and Eva Hesse in her pliable hangings.
postmodernism or Postmodernism - Art, architecture, or literature that reacts against earlier modernist principles, as by reintroducing traditional or classical elements of style or by carrying modernist styles or practices to extremes.
potato - A nodule attached to the surface of a casting where the metal has forced its way into a flaw — an air bubble — in the mold. These are generally filed down. Also see flashing, investment, and plaster.
potboiler - A work produced quickly, not of high quality or of great originality, with profit the main objective. Cheap formulaic work. Derived from the idea that certain works are created strictly to provide one's livelihood — to keep a pot boiling on the stove.
potshard or potsherd - A fragment of broken pottery discarded by an earlier civilization, likely to have settled into firmly stratified mounds over time and provide archaeological chronologies. Because potshards are more commonly known simply as shards, works of art about them or made of them can be seen in the article on shards. Also see excavate.
potter's wheel - A revolving horizontal disk, sometimes called a head, on which clay is shaped manually into pottery vessels. The simplest form of wheel is the kickwheel. To operate it, the potter kicks or propells some form of disk, crank, or treddle in order to keep the turntable spinning. Also commonly used today are power-driven wheels whose speed can be regulated by the potter as he or she works. The potter's wheel was probably invented either by the Sumerians of the Tigris-Euphrates Basin or by the Chinese around 5000 BCE, perhaps even before the use of wheels for transportation. Potter's wheels continue to be used today, though commercial ceramic manufacture is dominated by slip casting. Nevertheless, they are part of the basic equipment of the artist-potter. Kits of kickwheel parts can be purchased for as little as $200.
pottery - Objects, and especially vessels — pots, which are made from fired clay, including earthenware, stoneware and porcelain. Pots are functional ceramic objects, and may take such forms as plates, bowls, cups, jars, vases, urns, ewers (pitchers), bottles, and boxes. A pottery can also be a place where pots are made.
pound - A unit of weight measurement (in the US) equal to 16 ounces. To convert pounds into grams, multiply by 453.59; into kilograms, x 0.4536. Abbreviated lb. or with a #.
pour - The process of filling a mold with the material which will form a sculpture. Also see casting and lost-wax casting.
Poussinisme - The doctrine that form, rather than color, was the most important element in painting, as it is in the works of Nicolas Poussin (French, 1593/94-1665). It highly valued draftsmanship and linear style of painting. Poussinisme was a movement in seventeenth century France which arose in reaction to Rubénisme, which favored the coloristic brilliance and painterly style of Peter Paul Rubens (Flemish, 1577-1640). The Poussinistes were led by Charles Lebrun (French, 1619-1790), although Lebrun's work shows him emulating Rubens's style along with Poussin's. Rubens, Poussin, the Rubenistes, and the Poussinistes were all active during the Baroque period of art.
practice or practise - To repeat an action or process to acquire or refine a skill, or to improve ones performance in an art, a craft, or other pursuit. Or, to do something as an established custom or habit. "Practice" can be a noun as well: something a person does repeatedly, whether to improve or to do what one does customarily, habitually, or professionally. "Practise" is a British spelling.
practitioner - In education, a synonym for an educator — one who teaches as a profession. This term is often used instead of the term teachers in order to include administrators and other educators who might otherwise feel left out.
Praxis - The Praxis Series is an Educational Testing Service (ETS) program that provides tests and other services for states to use as part of their teacher certification process. The Praxis Series assessments are also used by colleges and universities to qualify individuals for entry into teacher education programs. A number of professional associations and organizations also use these tests. There are separate Praxis tests for each of several disciplines. In 2003 there are three different specialty area tests in visual arts: "Art Making," "Art Content Knowledge," and "Art Content, Traditions, Criticism, and Aesthetics." ArtLex is an excellent resource for those preparing for these tests, because it cross-references information about art media, tools and techniques, art history, criticism, aesthetics, and other art education topics. For more info about Praxis tests, including sample questions, visit teachingandlearning.org.
precursor - One that precedes and indicates or suggests something to come. A forerunner or predecessor. For example, the Romantic works of James M.W.Turner (English, 1775-1851) were precursors of both Impressionism and Expressionism. The magic lantern is a precursor to cinematography and video. Alternatively, a precursor is a profane toddler.
predella - In church architecture, the narrow ledge on which an altarpiece rests on an altar.
premise - A proposition upon which an argument is based or from which a conclusion is drawn; a stated assumption. Also see deduction and syllogism.
preparator - Among those people in art careers, an art museum preparator performs or supervises the performance of duties involving the handling of art objects for a variety of purposes including exhibitions, research and teaching, and assists curators in the maintenance of collections.
preschematic stage - The second of the Stages of Artistic Development named and described by Victor Lowenfeld, it typically occurs in children during the ages of 4 to 6. This stage is typically preceded by the scribble stage and followed by the schematic stage (6-9). Others refer to the preschematic and schematic stages as the period of symbolism.
press molding - A method of casting, especially ceramic ware by pressing a sheet of clay, by hand or with a tool, into an open plaster mold. Also see release agent.
pretentious - Claiming or demanding an unjustified position of distinction or merit. Displaying extravagance. Other synonyms: ostentatious, phony, snobbish, pompous, flashy, flaunting, florid, turgid, bombastic, swaggering, strutting, peacockish, grandiose, grandiloquent, highfalutin, orotund, and orchidaceous [an extravagant word itself!].
pretty - Generally superficial beauty.
price - The amount demanded or paid for (not to be confused with the art term value) for an art object, writing, intellectual property, etc., which is largely the same as its market value or monetary worth. Knowing an earlier price for something can help in setting a new price for it, or to appropriately insure it, or to satisfy simple curiosity. How a price is set might be determined by an appraisal, or by offering it for sale either via auction or gallery (traditional or online), or by an advertisement placed in a newspaper or magazine. [A much more in-depth article on this subject is coming soon.]
primary The primary colors: red, yellow, and bluecolors - The colors yellow, red (magenta), and blue (cyan) from which it is possible to mix all the other colors of the spectrum — also known as the subtractive or colorant primaries. Thus pigments that reflect light of one of these wavelengths and absorb other wavelengths may be mixed to produce all colors. Also, the light (-source) primaries: Lights of red, green, and blue wavelengths may be mixed to produce all colors. Light primaries are used in theatrical stage lighting, and in color video and computer screens.
primer - An undercoating paint applied to a surface, sealing it, creating a better bond (adhesion), and providing a ground for a painting. Applying such a ground is called priming. (pr. pri:'mr) Also see gesso, stain, and stain removal.
primitive - Early or undeveloped; simple. Caution: what one person interprets as primitive is likely to be interpreted by some as sophisticated in other ways. Such things are relative. Some prefer the term "primal." Primitive should not be confused with naive, folk, or outsider art, although some artists have intentionally made art so that it will display qualities of primitive art.
principles of design or principles of art - Certain qualities inherent in the choice and arrangement of elements of art in the production of a work of art. Artists "design" their works to varying degrees by controlling and ordering the elements of art. Considering the principles is especially useful in analyzing ways in which a work is pleasing in formal ways. How any work exhibits applications of these principles can further or modify other characteristics of a work as well.
prism - A three-dimensional figure whose bases or ends have the same size and shape and are parallel to one another, and each of whose sides is a rectangle. A transparent solid of this form, typically of glass and usually with triangular ends, used for separating white light passed through it into a spectrum, or for reflecting light beams. And, ground-glass objects such as those used as components of crystal chandeliers. Also, used metaphorically to refer to a medium that misrepresents whatever is seen through it. Also see optical and triangle.
prismatoid - A polyhedron all of whose vertices lie within one of two parallel planes. The minimum number of faces it must have is four, the maximum number possible is unlimited. Also see mathematics, polygon, prism, and vertex.
problem - A situation or question that presents perplexity, or a challenge, a mystery or puzzle which begs to be solved. In art education, assignments are often posed as problems. To students of creativity, finding or formulating a problem is considered the first stage in the creative process. George Kneller (American psychologist) called this stage "first insight." A middle stage involves mulling over the problem in a sort of chaos of ideas and knowledge. Jacob Getzel (American psychologist) called this "incubation." The last stage is when the idea is tested as a potential solution to the problem. Getzel called this "verification."
process - A complex operation involving a number of methods or techniques, such as the addition and subtraction processes in sculpture, the etching and intaglio processes in printmaking, or the casting or constructing processes in making jewelry. Also see albumen printing, analog, aquatint, art therapy, banco, benday, censorship, chasing, CMYK (cyan magenta yellow black), collage, coning, creativity, curing, daguerreotype, digital imaging, drypoint, earth art, electroplating, encaustic, etching, excavating, extruding, ferrotype, fire gilding, galvanizing, isms, jade, lossless and lossy compression, mezzoprint, montage, negative, offset printing, optical mixing, papermaking, pasteup, photography, photogravure, planography, pour, quality control, rodding, seasoning, soldering, stenciling, tapping, tempera, thermosetting, triturate, welding, and xerography.
profile - The side view of an object or person.
program - In painting and sculpture, the conceptual basis of a work. Also, in architecture, an architect's formulation of a design problem with respect to considerations of site, function, materials, and aims of the client.
projection - The process of directing light in a controlled way. In many cases through a translucent (usually a filmed, drawn or computer generated) image and a lens onto a screen or other viewing surface. Slides and cinema are typically projected. Computer, video, and other images can be as well.
projection principle - The phenomenon whereby the imagination is able to create form from any amorphous element, such as clouds, inkblots, etc. Also see anamorphosis, closure, and visualize.
Prometheus and Promethean - In Greek mythology, Prometheus, one of the Titan giants, modeled humans from clay and then taught them agriculture and all the arts of civilization. He also stole fire from the gods and gave it to humans. So inventive was Prometheus that anything that is notably creative and original may be called "Promethean." Zeus, however, had wanted the human race to perish, so Prometheus' actions were also disobedient. Hence "Promethean" can also mean defiant of authority or limits. As punishment for his disobedience, Zeus chained Prometheus to a rock where an eagle daily ate his liver. Thus, any suffering on a grand scale can also be called Promethean, though this sense is not as common as the others. (pr. pruh-mee'thee-un ["th" as in "think"])
pronaos - In ancient Greek architecture, the space in front of the cella, naos, or body of a Greek temple.
proof - In graphic arts, a preliminary print that is examined for quality control before final printing is done.
proportion - A principle of design, proportion refers to the comparative, proper, or harmonious relationship of one part to another or to the whole with respect to size, quantity, or degree; a ratio. Often proportion is allied with another principle of art, emphasis. For example, if there is a greater number of intense hues than dull hues in a work, emphasis is suggested. For another example, if one figure is made to look larger compared to other figures in a composition, it is said to be out of proportion and is given greater importance.
propylaeum - In ancient Greek and Roman architecture, a gateway building leading to an open court preceding a temple. The plural form is propylaea. (pr. prah-pi-lay'-?m)
proscenium - The stage of an ancient Greek or Roman theater. (pr. pro-see'nee-?m)
prostyle - A style of Greek temple in which the columns stand in front of the cella and extend its full width.
prototype - An original form that serves as a model on which later stages are based or judged.
protractor - A semicircular tool for the measurement and construction of angles. On the flat side of the protractor in the middle is either a hole or cross hairs. This is where the vertex (point of the angle) must go when measuring. Usually a horizontal line goes through this point and from one side of the protractor to the other. Sometimes there are no numbers on this line, but 0° or 180° are measured from here. Along the curved part of the protractor there are number markings (also called calibrations), with 90° in the middle. Most protractors have two sets of numbers for each marking so you can measure an angle from either side. One set goes from 0° to 180° — left to right — and the other set goes from 180° to 0°— right to left. A full circle has 360°. When you line up the protractor along one side of an angle, it will be lined up at 0° (on either the inner or outer set of numbers). This will tell you which set of numbers to read.
provenance - Generally refers to something's place of origin; its source. Used with artworks and antiques, provenance is a record or proof of authenticity or of past ownership. (pr. prah'v?-n?ns)
Prussian blue - A particular blue pigment.
psalter - A book containing the Psalms of the Bible.
pseudonym - A fictitious name for a person or thing. When used as the name of a person, a pseudonym may or may not have been legally adopted in place of that person's original name. A pseudonym might be a nickname or an alias, and might be noted as "aka" or "also known as." Among writers, a pseudonym is often called a "pen name" or, in French, a nom de plume, often employed when an author would rather not have his or her actual name on a publication. Among actors a pseudonym is called a "stage name" or a "screen name." A number of visual artists have come to be identified more by their pseudonyms than by the names given to them at birth. Reasons for taking a pseudonym often involve economic or political reasons, but as often to have been derived for convenience or from playful whims. A pseudonym might be deemed necessary to shed or disguise a name which is perceived as out of style, or otherwise off-putting; sometimes because it indicates an artist's prominent interest, a physical trait, or regional origin. An artist might adopt a pseudonym when works are of a kind which are very different from works by which the artist is known or wishes to be know.
pseudorealistic stage - The fifth and last of the Stages of Artistic Development named and described by Victor Lowenfeld, it typically occurs in children during the ages of 11 to 13. This stage is typically preceded by the dawning realism stage (9-11).
psyker - A Greek vase for cooling wine when it is partly submerged inside of a krater filled with icey water.
pt. - Abbreviation for pint.
publicity - The spreading of information about something or someone; advertisements, billboards, and news reports, for example. Also see blockbuster, communication, genius, graphic design, pamphlet, and poster.
puce - Brownish purple. (pron. pyoos)
puddling - A technique of creating even density and eliminating air bubbles in a mix of wet concrete by pushing a rod up and down through the mass.
pug - In ceramics, to mix clay to plasticity. Also see pug mill.
pug mill - A machine with revolving blades that chop, mix, and de-air ceramic clay. The pug mill is used to consolidate clay masses. Pug mills are manufactured in many sizes. Pictured here is a small one that is extruding porcelain.
pull - The graphic artist's term for printing a single print. Hence, "pulling" a print, instead of "printing" a print.
pulpitum - In a Gothic cathedral, a choir screen (see screen). Also called a jubé.
pumice - A light, porous igneous rock, formed from the foam of lava. It is used as an abrasive in both solid and powdered forms, and as a powder it is much used as a polish for marble sculpture.
punch - A tool hammered at right angles into a hard surface such as wood or metal, or pressed by hand into a soft surface such as clay or wax. A punch can cut a ring, or dot, or it can be decorated with a leaf or other such design. Sets of lettered and numbered punches, available in various sizes and styles, can be very useful. Some punches can be described as chasing tools. A punch can also be a broad, pointed metal tool used in roughing out a stone carving. Also see beader and puppet.
punctate - Marked with dots or tiny spots; spotted. Also see ablaq, brindled, pattern, piebald, pointillism, and variegated.
punty - A hollow iron rod used to gather molten glass for blowing; also called a pontil.
pupil - Physically essential to sight, the hole surrounded by the iris in the center of the eye, through which light passes on its way toward the lens, through the vitreous humor, and onto the retina.
puppet, puppeteer, and puppetry - A small-scale figure (as might represent a person or animal) traditionally either one with a cloth body and hollow head that fits over and is manipulated by the hand (aka "glove puppet"), or a marionette — having jointed parts animated from above by strings or wires, or from below by sticks. Bunraku is a traditional type of Japanese puppet. Contemporary puppets are sometimes controlled by electronic devices operated either by humans or computers, via a cable or remote control. These are called "animatronics." A puppet differs from an automaton in that a puppet's motion is caused by a live operator, while an automaton's movements are programmed. Given sufficient imagination, any sort of doll might serve as a puppet. One who operates puppets or who gives puppet shows is a puppeteer. Puppetry is the art of making or operating puppets, a branch of theater.
purple - A mixture of red and violet hues, the only color on a conventional twelve-color color wheel that is not natural to the visible spectrum. A rare form of the word purple is purpure.
push and pull - An optical sensation colors cause: the impression that each hue appears to recede or advance to a different depth from the eye. This term was coined and the concept promoted by painter Hans Hofmann (born in Bavaria, active in the USA, 1880-1966), often associated with Abstract Expressionism. His late paintings are characterised by the juxtaposition of strongly colored rectangles, which he said displayed this push and pull effect. The paintings were often worked out by pinning rectangles of colored paper to the canvas.
putto - A very young nude child, typically male. Putti (the plural form) were favorite subjects of Italian Renaissance and Baroque painting and sculpture. (pr. poo'toh, and poo'tee)
putty rubber - Alternative name for a kneaded eraser.
PVA - An abbreviation for polyvinyl alcohol. PVA is a thick white liquid which dries to a tough clear plastic skin. It is an adhesive and may also be used diluted with water as a release agent or sealant.
PVC - An abbreviation for polyvinyl chloride. PVC is a flexible sheet plastic which can be sewn, glued, or welded. Shapes made from PVC may be stuffed, inflated or filled with water. Inexpensive plastic pipes, and their related fittings, commonly used by plumbers, are usually made of PVC. Also see inflatable.
Pygmalion - A Cypriot sculptor in a legend that Ovid retold in his Metamorphoses. Pygmalion fell in love with a marble statue he'd carved of a beautiful woman named Galatea. Pygmalion prayed to Venus that the figure would come to life. When Venus granted Pygmalion's wish, the statue of Galatea came to life and returned his love. (pr. pig-MAY-lee-?n)
pylon - The monumental entrance to an ancient Egyptian temple. (pr. pi:'lahn) See hypostyle hall.
pyrometer - A mechanical device for measuring the temperature in a kiln.
pyrometric cones - Ceramic clay wedges placed inside a kiln before firing. (Bar shapes are also available.) At a certain temperature a cone will bend, so by constant observation it can be determined at what point particular temperatures are reached in the kiln. Used in a Kiln-Sitter, electricity is turned off to the kiln when the cone placed in it bends. The E. Orton Jr. Ceramic Foundation advises using a particular set of temperature equivalents for their cones, which melt at 34 different temperatures, each identified with its own cone number: starting at 022 at the lowest temperature (1157 degrees F.), continuing to cone 01, then to cone 1, and to the hotest at cone 12 (about 2420 degrees). Orton cones come in two regular sizes, temperatures varying between them slightly, rarely significantly. Number 06 large regular cones bend at 1830 degrees F., and small regular cones at 1873. Number 04 large regular cones bend at 1940, and small regular cones at 2008. Clay must be fired at a higher temperature to bisque than any subsequent firing for glazes. A triangle is often used as a glyph for "cone."
pyx - A small round lidded-box in which Catholic priests store consecrated hosts.
pyxis - A ceramic vessel used by the ancient Greeks to store cosmetics and perfumes. The plural form is pyxides. Among the other types of Greek vases are the alabastron, amphora, hydria, pelike, kantharos, krater, kyathos, kylix, lekythos, oinochoe, pelike, phiale, pinax, pithos, and rhyton.
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